{"id":1937,"date":"2008-08-03T23:05:16","date_gmt":"2008-08-04T07:05:16","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.horace.org\/blog\/2008\/08\/03\/%e5%93%b2%e5%ad%b8%e5%8a%9f%e8%aa%b2%ef%b9%95-critique-of-freedom-and-responsibility\/"},"modified":"2015-10-29T00:11:36","modified_gmt":"2015-10-29T08:11:36","slug":"%e5%93%b2%e5%ad%b8%e5%8a%9f%e8%aa%b2%ef%b9%95-critique-of-freedom-and-responsibility","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.horace.org\/blog\/2008\/08\/03\/%e5%93%b2%e5%ad%b8%e5%8a%9f%e8%aa%b2%ef%b9%95-critique-of-freedom-and-responsibility\/","title":{"rendered":"\u54f2\u5b78\u529f\u8ab2\ufe55 Critique of Freedom and Responsibility"},"content":{"rendered":"

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 <\/p>\n

Critique of Freedom and Responsibility <\/strong><\/p>\n

In this essay, I will discuss Sartre\u2019s idea on freedom and responsibility. <\/span>I will first outline Sartre\u2019s argument about freedom is a burden. <\/span>Then I will criticize his thoughts based on his existentialism philosophy and show freedom is not necessary a burden. <\/span><\/p>\n

<\/span>Sartre said, \u201cWe are condemned to be free carries the weight of the whole world on our shoulder.\u201d (E: P.251) <\/span>We are entirely responsible for the world created by ourselves; we cannot blame it on others. <\/span>Every one of us must choose himself; but by that we also mean that in choosing for himself he chooses for all men (E: P.208). <\/span>We cannot escape from our responsibility by claiming shelter from authority, whether it is in the form of the government or God. <\/span>Sartre said it is our choice to follow other people\u2019s orders; therefore we are responsible for the consequence of the orders we followed. <\/span>We cannot escape from our responsibility by claiming we did not do it. <\/span>Sartre said inaction is also a choice we choose; therefore we should be responsibility for our lack of action. <\/span>We cannot escape from our responsibility by claiming we did not ask for it. <\/span>Sartre said we always have an alternative to dessert or commit suicide, therefore we chose this world and we are responsible for it. <\/span>In the end, Sartre thinks we have no excuses to escape from our responsibility. <\/span>Once we realize that we are abandonment to choose freely and take up the responsibilities of our choice, we will feel anguish. <\/span>Most of us will flee anguish in bad faith.<\/p>\n

Sartre used the following example to illustrate the burden of freedom. <\/span>If I am mobilized in a war, this war is my war, it is in my image and I deserve it. (E: P.252) <\/span>I must take the full responsibility of the war, because I choose to be part of it. <\/span>It is my choice that I enlisted and fight the enemy, instead of getting out of it by deserting or committing suicide. <\/span>I may find many excuses for not getting out of it, such as good opinion of my relatives, the honor of my family, etc. <\/span>I am in fact choosing those values over the value of refusal to join the way. <\/span>I keep choosing it again and again until the end of the war for not quitting the war half way. <\/span>Therefore Sartre said, \u201cIn war there are no innocent victims\u201d. <\/span>During the years of war, I choose this life that makes me day after day. <\/span>The war is mine because by the sole fact that it arises in a situation which I cause to be. <\/span>(E: P.253) <\/span>Choosing war does not mean that I can take a recess from my responsibility elsewhere, such as in marriage, family or professional life. <\/span>I cannot blame anyone but myself if the time I served in the war going to be empty years. <\/span>No matter what situation I am in, I must be without remorse or regrets as I am without excuse. <\/span>I carry the weight of the world by myself alone without anything or any other person being able to lighten it. <\/span>(E: P.254) <\/span>I cannot flee the anguish by assuming the role of merely being a soldier. <\/span> <\/span>This is bad faith according to Sartre. <\/span>I am a conscious being-for-itself. <\/span>I am cannot objectify myself into a role of soldier that is being-in-itself. <\/span>It is my choice to become a soldier and participate in this war; therefore I have the war I deserve.<\/p>\n

I think Sartre\u2019s argument about freedom is a burden is based on a false premise. <\/span>He misunderstands the meaning of responsibility. <\/span>He takes the word \u201cresponsibility\u201d in the sense as \u201cconsciousness of being the incontestable author of an event or of an object\u201d (E: P.252). <\/span>However, in ordinary sense, responsibility is a duty we are required to fulfill. <\/span>Merely causing something to happen is not responsible for that thing in ordinary sense. <\/span>Responsibility is about something we ought to do. <\/span>Even we have a free choice to do otherwise; we should still do what is required out of our responsibility. <\/span>We are only responsible for something if we are liable or accountably for that thing. <\/span> <\/span>For example, I can choose to have a vanilla ice-cream or chocolate ice-cream, but I am not responsible for the fact that I have vanilla ice-cream but not chocolate ice-cream since I don\u2019t have any obligation on which favor of ice-cream I should choose. <\/span>In traditional philosophy, the responsibility of man comes from morality, from God, from authority, or from deduced by our reason. <\/span>In Sartre\u2019s existentialism philosophy, he rejects any objective truth. <\/span>He rejects the existence of God, he rejected the logics and reason and he rejects authority. <\/span> <\/span>Then we must ask ourselves, where our responsibility comes from if there is no one imposes any duty on us. <\/span>Responsibility itself is a human value. <\/span>It does not exist until we choose to create it. <\/span>In this sense, an object or a being-in-itself is responsible for causing something to happen because it is what happened in the world, it has no choice. <\/span> <\/span>A subject or a being-for-itself is not responsible for anything unless he choose to accept the responsibility. <\/span>There is a gap of nothingness exists between the world and the consciousness. <\/span>Whatever happen to the world has no relationship to our consciousness unless we choose to allow it affect our consciousness. <\/span>In short, if we have absolute freedom as Sartre suggested, then we should have the freedom to choose not accepting any responsibility. <\/span> <\/span><\/p>\n

Let us use Sartre\u2019s example as an illustration. <\/span>In his example, say I am mobilized in a war and this is my war and I am responsible for it. <\/span>I may think I have obligation as a citizen to join the army and defense my country. <\/span>I may also think I have family responsibility prevent me from joining the army, stay home and take care of my family. <\/span>However in existentialism, if I reflect on what is my responsibility, I find any ground instruct me to war or not to war. <\/span>Since I am not obligate to anything, I am free to choose one way or another. <\/span> <\/span>Choosing to war does not imply I have to take the responsibility, since the responsibility is not there to begin with. <\/span>In order to take the responsibility of the war, I must first choose to create it out of nothingness in my consciousness. <\/span>Since I am absolutely free, I have the choice of not creating the responsibility in the first place. <\/span>Since I have no responsibility whatsoever to begin with, I no longer have the problem of feeling anguish for continuously choosing to war. <\/span>Choosing to war or not to war is just like choosing between vanilla ice-cream and chocolate ice-cream. <\/span> <\/span>Although I may not like the outcome of the world, I have no duty to dessert or to suicide. <\/span>Just like it is not my responsibility to war, it is also not my responsibility not to war. <\/span>Yes, I still have no excuses to escape from my responsibility. <\/span>However I don\u2019t need any excuses, since I never choose to take on any responsibility. <\/span>I am innocent in the beginning and I can choose to keep it this way. <\/span>The problem of Sartre is that he is not aware that he chose to take the responsibilities. <\/span>He chooses to think he has a duty to his family and he also has a duty to his country. <\/span>When the two duties are mutually exclusive, it is logically impossible to go to war and not go to war at the same time. <\/span>He feels the burden of freedom because of contradicting responsibilities. <\/span>In order to flee the anguish; he has to find a way to escape from the monster named responsibility. <\/span>Yet he does not release this monster is his own creation. <\/span>Freedom is only a burden if you choose it to be a burden.<\/p>\n

Sartre may argue that making a choice of not taking any responsibility is still a bad faith in disguise in order to flee anguish. <\/span>According to Sartre, anguish is the realization that there is no necessity in my life. <\/span>My life is a system of values sustained in being only by my choice of sustaining it. <\/span>I am the one who give values to everything around me in order to determine my reaction to those things. <\/span>Once I have the consciousness of my freedom, I will have the sensation of groundlessness and experience the anguish of being the source of my own values. <\/span>Then Sartre further explains most people flee anguish in bad faith. <\/span>Bad faith is a form of self-deception, trying to tell lies to myself. <\/span>However it is impossible because I cannot hide it from myself if I already process it. <\/span>In the example above, Sartre may say I deny my responsibility of war is a bad faith because I objectify myself as a thing with no responsibility. <\/span>My response to Sartre is that there is no necessity in my life including anguish. <\/span>Anguish is not a necessity of my life, it is merely a choice. <\/span>If my freedom reveals my value is groundlessness, what is the big deal? <\/span>I am not acting in bad faith either. <\/span>In order to be in bad faith, first of all you must know it and then lie about it to yourself. <\/span>What if I don\u2019t even care about the truthfulness of it? <\/span>I simply create it out of nothingness that fits whatever purpose I desire it to be. <\/span>There is no true or false in the subject of matters, so no lies involve. <\/span>I cannot lie about something that I do not know about. <\/span>Therefore I cannot be in bad faith if I don\u2019t know whether or not the war is my responsibility. <\/span>Contrary to Sartre\u2019s view, it is in fact a bad faith to take up the responsibility of going to war. <\/span>By taking up the responsibility, I am role-playing the role of man and unavoidability take up the responsibility of being a man. <\/span>If I have absolute freedom, I should be free not to be a man. <\/span>I am free to be just myself with no responsibility or anguish which attached to the role of man. <\/span>I am what I am.<\/p>\n

In conclusion, Sartre underestimated the true meaning of freedom. <\/span>He did not question what is anguish? <\/span>What is bad faith? <\/span>What is responsibility? <\/span>He thinks he all the guardrails of his system of value collapse, there is no necessity in this system. <\/span> <\/span>He forgot that he is still bounded by his system of existentialism, so he is not truly free. <\/span>In the state of absolute freedom, man can choose not to accept anguish, not to accept any responsibility, not to know about anything that may lead to bad faith. <\/span>Freedom is not a burden, because man is free to choose not having any burden.<\/p>\n

<\/o:p><\/o:p><\/o:p><\/o:p><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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I will first outline Sartre\u2019s argument about freedom is a burden. Then I will criticize his thoughts based on his existentialism philosophy and show freedom is not necessary a burden. Sartre said, \u201cWe are … Continue reading \u54f2\u5b78\u529f\u8ab2\ufe55 Critique of Freedom and Responsibility<\/span> →<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"lc_iscn_info":[],"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":false,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","default_image_id":0,"font":"","enabled":false},"version":2}},"categories":[5],"tags":[929,1043],"class_list":["post-1937","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-_philosophy","tag-_philosophy","tag-1043"],"yoast_head":"\n\u54f2\u5b78\u529f\u8ab2\ufe55 Critique of Freedom and Responsibility - \u54f2\u5b50\u6232 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(Nietzsche)\u958b\u59cb\ufe50\u7948\u514b\u679c(Kierkegaard)\ufe50\u6c99\u7279(Sartre)\ufe50\u99ac\u8272\u723e(Marcel)\u548c\u5361\u7e46(Camus)\u3002\u5728\u8b80\u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u7fa9\u4e4b\u524d\ufe50\u6211\u8207\u5927\u90e8\u4efd\u4e00\u77e5\u534a\u89e3\u7684\u4eba\u4e00\u6a23\ufe50\u5c0d\u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u7fa9\u6709\u5f88\u5927\u8aa4\u89e3\ufe50\u4ee5\u70ba\u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u7fa9\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u5f88\u8ca0\u9762\ufe50\u662f\u500b\u5e38\u5e38\u8a0e\u8ad6\u6b7b\u4ea1\u7684\u865b\u7121\u4e3b\u7fa9\u3002\u5176\u5be6\u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u7fa9\u662f\u5c0d\u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u7fa9\u6279\u5224\ufe50\u63a8\u7ffb\u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u7fa9\u4e16\u754c\u6709\u5ba2\u89c0\u771f\u7406\u7684\u8aaa\u6cd5\ufe50\u56e0\u70ba\u4eba\u985e\u53ea\u80fd\u6191\u4e3b\u89c0\u7d93\u9a57\u53bb\u8a8d\u8b58\u4e16\u754c\u3002\u4eba\u5011\u7576\u5931\u53bb\u7fd2\u4ee5\u70ba\u5e38\u7684\u5ba2\u89c0\u771f\u7406\u5f8c\ufe50\u5c31\u6703\u5982\u8173\u8e0f\u4e0d\u5230\u5730\u9762\u822c\u8ff7\u5931\ufe50\u8dcc\u5165\u865b\u7121\u4e3b\u7fa9\u7684\u6df1\u6df5\u3002\u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u7fa9\u6307\u51fa\u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u7fa9\u7684\u865b\u7121\ufe50\u4e26\u5617\u8a66\u63d0\u4f9b\u53e6\u4e00\u5957\u601d\u60f3\u7cfb\u7d71\ufe50\u628a\u4eba\u5011\u5f9e\u865b\u7121\u4e2d\u62ef\u6551\u51fa\u4f86\u3002\u5b58\u5728\u4e3b\u7fa9\u53cd\u5c0d\u7406\u6027\u601d\u7dad\ufe50\u6240\u4ee5\u5f88\u5c11\u6709\u50b3\u7d71\u54f2\u5b78\u7684\u56b4\u7dca\u63a8\u8ad6\ufe50\u4ea6\u6c92\u6709\u53cd\u8986\u63a8\u6572\u7684\u8ad6\u8a3c\ufe50\u601d\u60f3\u591a\u6578\u900f\u904e\u6587\u5b78\u4f5c\u54c1\u5c55\u73fe\u51fa\u4f86\u3002 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Marx)\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u5f71\u97ff\u4e8c\u5341\u4e16\u7d00\u7684\u6b77\u53f2\u767c\u5c55\ufe50\u4ed6\u9664\u4e86\u5f71\u97ff\u653f\u6cbb\ufe50\u793e\u6703\u548c\u7d93\u6fdf\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u5916\ufe50\u4ed6\u4ea6\u662f\u81ea\u5b97\u6559\u6539\u9769\u4ee5\u4f86\u6700\u6210\u529f\u7684\u795e\u5b78\u5bb6\u3002\u99ac\u514b\u601d\u6279\u8a55\u6709\u7d44\u7e54\u6027\u7684\u5b97\u6559\u3002\u6709\u4e9b\u4eba\u53cd\u5c0d\u6709\u7d44\u7e54\u6027\u7684\u5b97\u6559\ufe50\u4f46\u4e0d\u53cd\u5c0d\u5b97\u6559\u672c\u8eab\u3002\u7530\u7acb\u514b\u8aaa\u9019\u6839\u672c\u662f\u7121\u7a3d\u4e4b\u8ad6\ufe50\u5b97\u6559\u4e0d\u53ef\u80fd\u7368\u7acb\u65bc\u7d44\u7e54\u4e4b\u5916\u5b58\u5728\ufe50\u56e0\u70ba\u6211\u5011\u9748\u4fee\u7684\u8a9e\u8a00\ufe50\u5168\u90e8\u4e5f\u6e90\u65bc\u6709\u7d44\u7e54\u6027\u7684\u5b97\u6559\u3002\u99ac\u514b\u601d\u53cd\u5c0d\u552f\u5fc3\u8ad6\ufe50\u4ed6\u4ea6\u53cd\u5c0d\u9ed1\u683c\u723e\u5f0f\u7684\u552f\u7269\u8ad6\ufe50\u4ed6\u5426\u5b9a\u7d55\u5c0d\u7cbe\u795e\u6c7a\u5b9a\u6b77\u53f2\u6d41\u5411\ufe50\u6539\u70ba\u4ee5\u7d93\u6fdf\u751f\u7522\u65b9\u6cd5\u53bb\u6c7a\u5b9a\u6b77\u53f2\u6d41\u5411\u3002\u4ed6\u8a8d\u70ba\u4eba\u7684\u7368\u7acb\u500b\u9ad4\u53ea\u662f\u5e7b\u89ba\ufe50\u4eba\u662f\u793e\u6703\u7fa4\u9ad4\u7684\u4e00\u4efd\u5b50\ufe50\u4eba\u4e0d\u53ef\u80fd\u5f9e\u793e\u6703\u73fe\u5be6\u4e2d\u62bd\u96e2\u3002\u4ed6\u8a8d\u70ba\u5b97\u6559\u4e0a\u7684\u6eff\u8db3\ufe50\u4e26\u975e\u6bcf\u500b\u4eba\u7684\u5e0c\u671b\ufe50\u53ea\u662f\u7d71\u6cbb\u968e\u7d1a\u88fd\u9020\u51fa\u4f86\ufe50\u9632\u6b62\u7fa4\u773e\u5728\u73fe\u4e16\u627e\u5230\u6eff\u8db3\u3002\u9019\u4ea6\u662f\u4ed6\u7684\u540d\u8a00\u201c\u5b97\u6559\u662f\u4eba\u6c11\u7684\u9d09\u7247\u201d\u7684\u51fa\u8655\u3002\u7530\u7acb\u514b\u8a8d\u70ba\u5171\u7522\u4e3b\u7fa9\u662f\u6e96\u5b97\u6559\ufe50\u5167\u5728\u6709\u5b97\u6559\u6027\u7684\u7d50\u69cb\ufe50\u4e0d\u904e\u7f3a\u5c11\u4e86\u5411\u4e0a\u7684\u8d85\u9a57\u7d50\u69cb\u3002\u6b63\u56e0\u70ba\u9ee8\u4e4b\u4e0a\u518d\u6c92\u6709\u66f4\u9ad8\u5c64\u6b21\ufe50\u6240\u4ee5\u9ee8\u6c92\u6709\u8fa8\u6cd5\u81ea\u6211\u6279\u5224\ufe50\u4ee4\u5171\u7522\u4e3b\u7fa9\u6210\u70ba\u6975\u6b0a\u5974\u96b8\u5236\u5ea6\u3002","rel":"","context":"In "\u5b97\u6559"","block_context":{"text":"\u5b97\u6559","link":"https:\/\/www.horace.org\/blog\/category\/_religions\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.horace.org\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/06\/71HQbMcsH3L._AC_UF10001000_QL80_-3.jpg?fit=706%2C1000&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.horace.org\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/06\/71HQbMcsH3L._AC_UF10001000_QL80_-3.jpg?fit=706%2C1000&ssl=1&resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.horace.org\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/06\/71HQbMcsH3L._AC_UF10001000_QL80_-3.jpg?fit=706%2C1000&ssl=1&resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.horace.org\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/06\/71HQbMcsH3L._AC_UF10001000_QL80_-3.jpg?fit=706%2C1000&ssl=1&resize=700%2C400 2x"},"classes":[]},{"id":630,"url":"https:\/\/www.horace.org\/blog\/2006\/12\/20\/phil300-%e5%93%b2%e5%ad%b8%e5%85%a5%e9%96%80\/","url_meta":{"origin":1937,"position":2},"title":"PHIL300 \u54f2\u5b78\u5165\u9580","author":"hevangel","date":"December 20, 2006","format":false,"excerpt":"\u9019\u500b\u5b78\u671f\u6211\u5728\u5927\u5b78\u4fee\u8b80\u4e86\u6211\u7684\u7b2c\u4e00\u9580\u54f2\u5b78\u8ab2\ufe50\u662fPHIL300\u54f2\u5b78\u5165\u9580\u3002\u8b80\u9019\u79d1\u53ef\u4ee5\u8aaa\u662f\u7d14\u70ba\u8208\u8da3\ufe50\u4eca\u500b\u5b78\u671f\u6211\u5df2\u7d93\u505a\u5b8c\u78a9\u58eb\u8ad6\u6587\u7b49\u7562\u696d\ufe50\u6a6b\u8c4e\u6709\u516c\u53f8\u4ea4\u5b78\u8cbb\u4e0d\u8981\u6d6a\u8cbb\ufe50\u4fbf\u627e\u9580\u6709\u8208\u8da3\u7684\u8ab2\u4f86\u8b80\u8b80\u3002\u9019\u9580\u8ab2\u662f\u4e09\u5e74\u7d1a\u7684\u8ab2\u7a0b\ufe50\u4e0d\u904e\u662f\u4ee5\u975e\u54f2\u5b78\u672c\u79d1\u751f\u70ba\u5c0d\u8c61\u958b\u8a2d\ufe50\u82e5\u5df2\u7d93\u8b80\u4e86\u4e00\u5e74\u7d1a\u54f2\u5b78\u5165\u9580\u8ab2\ufe50\u4fbf\u4e0d\u80fd\u518d\u8b80\u9019\u79d1\u53d6\u5b78\u5206\u3002\u96d6\u8aaa\u662f\u54f2\u5b78\u5165\u9580\ufe50\u5176\u5be6\u56b4\u683c\u4f86\u8aaa\u53ea\u662f\u8a8d\u77e5\u8ad6(epsitemology)\u5165\u9580\ufe50\u56e0\u70ba\u9078\u7528\u7684\u8ab2\u672c\u548c\u6559\u6388\u54f2\u5b78\u5bb6\u7684\u60f3\u601d\ufe50\u4e5f\u90fd\u662f\u5c6c\u65bc\u9019\u54f2\u5b78\u4e09\u5927\u5206\u652f\u4e4b\u4e00\u3002\u5176\u4ed6\u5169\u9580\u5206\u652f\u662f\u5f62\u4e0a\u5b78(metaphysics)\u548c\u50f9\u503c\u8ad6(value theory) 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\u9019\u8ab2\u7684\u5f62\u5f0f\u662f\u6bcf\u500b\u661f\u671f\u7684\u4e00\u5802\ufe50\u7d39\u4ecb\u4e00\u540d\u6b7b\u9b3c\u54f2\u5b78\u5bb6\u4ee5\u53ca\u4ed6\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u5b78\u8aaa\u3002\u7531\u555f\u8499\u6642\u4ee3\u7684Descarte\u958b\u59cb\u8aaa\u8d77\ufe50\u5148\u5f8c\u4ecb\u7d39\u7406\u6027\u4e3b\u7fa9\u548c\u7d93\u9a57\u4e3b\u7fa9\u7684\u4ee3\u8868\u4eba\u7269\ufe50\u518d\u5230\u628a\u5169\u8005\u6574\u5408\u54f2\u5b78\u4e2d\u7684\u5de8\u4eba\u5eb7\u5fb7(Kant)\ufe50\u9084\u6709\u5f8c\u4f86\u7684\u5be6\u7528\u4e3b\u7fa9\u548c\u81ea\u7136\u4e3b\u7fa9\ufe50\u518d\u5230\u7d44\u6210\u4e8c\u6b21\u5927\u6230\u5f8c\u7684\u7dad\u4e5f\u7d0d\u5708\u7684\u908f\u8f2f\u5b78\u6d3e\ufe50\u548c\u5176\u76f8\u5c0d\u7684\u79d1\u5b78\u54f2\u5b78\u7406\u8ad6\u3002\u5176\u5be6\u4e5f\u4e0d\u662f\u5168\u90e8\u54f2\u5b78\u5bb6\u4e5f\u662f\u6b7b\u6389\u7684\ufe50\u6700\u5f8c\u5e7e\u5802\u4e5f\u6709\u6559\u9084\u5728\u751f\u7684\u4eba\u3002\u6700\u51fa\u540d\u5c31\u662f\u767c\u660eParadigm Shift\u9019\u500b\u540d\u8a5e\u7684Thomas Khun\ufe50\u9019\u500b\u5b57\u73fe\u5728\u7d66\u90a3\u4e9b\u5546\u7ba1\u4eba\u7528\u5230\u721b\u7528\u5230\u60b6\ufe50\u6700\u521d\u7684\u672c\u610f\u5176\u5be6\u539f\u4f86\u662f\u53e6\u4e00\u56de\u4e8b\u3002 \u5c0d\u6211\u4f86\u8aaa\u8ab2\u5802\u4e26\u4e0d\u6c89\u60b6\ufe50\u56e0\u70ba\u6bcf\u4e00\u540d\u54f2\u5b78\u5bb6\u7684\u601d\u60f3\u5c0d\u6211\u4e5f\u662f\u65b0\u5947\u7684\ufe50\u4e5f\u90fd\u523a\u6fc0\u6211\u53bb\u601d\u8003\u4e00\u4e9b\u4ee5\u524d\u6c92\u6709\u60f3\u904e\u7684\u554f\u984c\u3002\u6559\u6388\u4e0d\u7b97\u662f\u592a\u60b6\ufe50\u4e0d\u904e\u5c31\u6b20\u7f3a\u4e00\u9ede\u4e92\u52d5\u8a0e\u8ad6\u7684\u7a4d\u6975\u6027 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Canterbury\u7684\u6700\u5927\u4f9b\u737b\u662f\u5617\u8a66\u63d0\u51fa\u795e\u5b58\u5728\u7684\u8ad6\u8a3c\ufe50\u9019\u4e9b\u8ad6\u9ede\u4eca\u5929\u5728\u77e5\u8b58\u6c34\u5e73\u4f4e\u7684\u6559\u5f92\u9593\u5341\u5206\u6d41\u884c\ufe50\u4e0d\u904e\u5728\u54f2\u5b78\u5165\u9580\u4e2d\u537b\u6210\u70ba\u7d93\u5178\u7684\u53cd\u9762\u6559\u6750\u3002\u7576\u7136\u6211\u5011\u4e0d\u8981\u770b\u5c11Anselm\ufe50\u9019\u4e9b\u8ad6\u9ede\u4ee5\u4e2d\u4e16\u7d00\u7684\u6c34\u5e73\u4f86\u8aaa\ufe50\u5176\u5be6\u9084\u662f\u883b\u9032\u6b65\u7684\u5b78\u8853\u601d\u60f3\u3002 Abelard de Paris\u7684\u795e\u5b78\u5617\u8a66\u7528\u7406\u6027\u53bb\u89e3\u795e\u79d8\u4e3b\u7fa9\u3002\u53e6\u5916\u4ed6\u7814\u7a76\u4f55\u8b02\u5584\u60e1\u7684\u9053\u5fb7\u7406\u8ad6\ufe50\u4ed6\u8a8d\u70ba\u5584\u60e1\u4e0d\u662f\u7531\u884c\u70ba\u7684\u7d50\u679c\u6c7a\u5b9a\ufe50\u800c\u662f\u53d6\u6c7a\u65bc\u4eba\u5167\u5fc3\u7684\u52d5\u6a5f\ufe50\u56e0\u4e9b\u7f6a\u5c31\u662f\u5e79\u9055\u80cc\u826f\u5fc3\u7684\u4e8b\u6027\u3002 Bernard of Clairvaux\u5247\u525b\u525b\u76f8\u53cd\ufe50\u4ed6\u662f\u4e00\u540d\u795e\u79d8\u4e3b\u7fa9\u8005\ufe50\u8a8d\u70ba\u4fe1\u4ef0\u662f\u6e90\u65bc\u7d93\u9a57\ufe50\u7d93\u9a57\u6e90\u65bc\u8056\u9748\u3002 Joachim of Floris\u767c\u5c55\u51fa\u4e00\u5957\u6709\u5225\u65bc\u5967\u4e01\u65af\u53e4\u7684\u6b77\u53f2\u54f2\u5b78\ufe50\u4ed6\u63d0\u51fa\u4e09\u500b\u4e0d\u540c\u7684\u5343\u79a7\u5e74\u671f\ufe50\u7b2c\u4e00\u500b\u6642\u671f\u662f\u820a\u7d04\u7684\u5f8b\u6cd5\u6642\u671f\ufe50\u7b2c\u4e8c\u500b\u6642\u671f\u662f\u73fe\u5728\u7684\u6559\u6703\u6642\u671f\ufe50\u5728\u6700\u5f8c\u4e00\u500b\u4fee\u9053\u6642\u671f\u4e2d\ufe50\u5168\u4eba\u985e\u5c07\u6b78\u4f9d\u5929\u4e3b\ufe50\u4e0d\u518d\u9700\u8981\u6559\u6703\u7684\u5f15\u5c0e\u3002 \u5728\u5341\u4e09\u4e16\u7d00\ufe50\u6b50\u6d32\u7684\u57fa\u7763\u6559\u6587\u660e\u63a5\u89f8\u4e2d\u6771\u7684\u56de\u6559\u6587\u660e\ufe50\u5f9e\u65b0\u8a8d\u8b58\u5931\u843d\u4e86\u7684\u4e9e\u91cc\u58eb\u591a\u5fb7\u54f2\u5b78\u3002\u6b63\u5982\u5967\u4e01\u65af\u53e4\u7d66\u67cf\u62c9\u5716\u6d17\u79ae\ufe50\u7528\u67cf\u62c9\u5716\u7684\u54f2\u5b78\u53bb\u89e3\u91cb\u57fa\u7763\u6559\u7684\u4fe1\u4ef0\ufe50Thomas Aquinas\u5247\u662f\u70ba\u4e9e\u91cc\u58eb\u591a\u5fb7\u65bd\u6d17\u3002\u5967\u4e01\u65af\u53e4\u8a8d\u70ba\u4eba\u985e\u77e5\u8b58\u662f\u5f9e\u795e\u800c\u4f86\ufe50\u795e\u8cdc\u8207\u4eba\u985e\u5167\u5fc3\u7684\u7406\u6027\ufe50\u4eba\u985e\u5f9e\u7406\u6027\u7522\u751f\u77e5\u8b58\u3002Thomas\u7684\u8aaa\u6cd5\u5247\u662f\u525b\u525b\u76f8\u53cd\ufe50\u842c\u7269\u7686\u5f9e\u795e\u800c\u4f86\ufe50\u4f46\u4eba\u985e\u7684\u77e5\u8b58\u6e90\u65bc\u5c0d\u842c\u7269\u7684\u89c0\u5bdf\ufe50\u4eba\u985e\u900f\u904e\u77e5\u8b58\u4f86\u66f4\u52a0\u8a8d\u8b58\u795e\u3002\u4ed6\u7684\u53e6\u4e00\u500b\u4f9b\u737b\u8207Anselm\u5dee\u4e0d\u591a\ufe50\u63d0\u51fa\u4e94\u500b\u63a8\u8ad6\u5617\u8a66\u8a3c\u660e\u795e\u5b58\u5728\u3002\u7576\u7136\u4ee5\u4eca\u5929\u7684\u89d2\u5ea6\u4f86\u770b\ufe50\u7d50\u679c\u4e5f\u8207Anselm\u5dee\u4e0d\u591a\ufe50\u6210\u70ba\u54f2\u5b78\u5165\u660e\u7684\u53cd\u9762\u6559\u6750\u3002\u4e0d\u904e\u4ed6\u7684\u63a8\u8ad6\u8207Anselm\u7684\u63a8\u8ad6\u622a\u7136\u4e0d\u540c\ufe50\u4e00\u500b\u662f\u4ee5\u67cf\u62c9\u5716\u70ba\u57fa\u790e\u7684\u672c\u9ad4\u8ad6\ufe50\u53e6\u4e00\u500b\u5247\u662f\u4ee5\u4e9e\u91cc\u58eb\u591a\u5fb7\u70ba\u57fa\u790e\u7684\u56e0\u679c\u8ad6\u3002\u9664\u4e86\u795e\u5b78\u5916\ufe50Thomas\u5728\u54f2\u5b78\u4e2d\u9053\u5fb7\u548c\u7f8e\u5b78\u7684\u8ab2\u984c\u4e2d\ufe50\u4ed6\u7684\u7406\u8ad6\u5c0d\u5f8c\u4e16\u4e5f\u6709\u6df1\u9060\u7684\u5f71\u97ff\u3002 William of Ockham\u6700\u8457\u540d\u662f\u4ed6\u90a3\u628a\u5243\u5200\ufe50\u8a8d\u70ba\u63a8\u8ad6\u7684\u89e3\u91cb\u8d8a\u7cbe\u7c21\u8d8a\u6e96\u78ba\ufe50\u6c92\u6709\u5fc5\u8981\u628a\u7c21\u55ae\u4e8b\u60c5\u8907\u96dc\u5316\u3002William\u7684\u539f\u610f\u662f\u63a8\u8ad6\u6559\u6703\u7684\u4fe1\u4ef0\u6b0a\u5a01\ufe50\u537b\u60f3\u4e0d\u5230\u5f8c\u4e16\u7528\u4ed6\u7684\u5243\u5200\u628a\u795e\u5f9e\u73fe\u5be6\u63a8\u8ad6\u4e2d\u5243\u6389\u3002 Meister Eckhart\u662f\u5fb7\u570b\u795e\u79d8\u4e3b\u7fa9\u7684\u4ee3\u8868\u4eba\u7269\ufe50\u5c07Thomas\u795e\u5b78\u7406\u8ad6\u8f49\u5316\u70ba\u5be6\u8e10\u7d93\u9a57\u3002 \u5b97\u6559\u6539\u9769\u5728\u4e2d\u4e16\u7d00\u672b\u671f\u5df1\u958b\u59cb\u919e\u91c0\ufe50\u82f1\u570b\u7684John Wyclif\u5df2\u5728\u767c\u5c55\u6539\u9769\u795e\u5b78\u7684\u96db\u5f62\ufe50\u5dee\u4e0d\u591a\u5305\u62ec\u6240\u6709\u6539\u9769\u795e\u5b78\ufe50\u9664\u4e86\u99ac\u4e01\u8def\u5fb7\u63d0\u51fa\u4eba\u8207\u795e\u7684\u65b0\u95dc\u4fc2\ufe50\u4e0d\u9700\u8981\u518d\u901a\u904e\u6559\u6703\u3002\u96d6\u7136Wyclif\u5927\u529b\u6279\u8a55\u6559\u6703\u50b3\u7d71\ufe50\u4e2d\u4e16\u7d00\u6559\u6703\u5176\u5be6\u5c0d\u795e\u5b78\u8a0e\u8ad6\u5f88\u958b\u653e\ufe50\u4ed6\u63d0\u51fa\u7684\u8aaa\u6cd5\u4e26\u672a\u88ab\u5b9a\u70ba\u7570\u7aef\u53d7\u5230\u8feb\u5bb3\ufe50\u53ea\u662f\u773e\u591a\u4e0d\u540c\u795e\u5b78\u7406\u8ad6\u9593\u7684\u5b78\u8853\u722d\u8b70\u3002 \u770b\u7f77\u4e2d\u4e16\u7d00\u795e\u5b78\u601d\u60f3\u7684\u6b77\u53f2\ufe50\u6211\u8a8d\u540c\u7530\u7acb\u514b\u5728\u7b2c\u4e09\u7ae0\u958b\u982d\u7684\u8aaa\u6cd5\ufe50\u4e2d\u4e16\u7d00\u4e26\u975e\u5b8c\u5168\u9ed1\u6697\u58ae\u843d\ufe50\u77e5\u8b58\u767c\u5c55\u5b8c\u5168\u505c\u6eef\u4e0d\u524d\u3002\u7d93\u6b77\u7f85\u99ac\u5e1d\u570b\u7684\u8208\u8870\ufe50\u6b77\u53f2\u5728\u9019\u6642\u671f\u76f8\u5c0d\u4e0a\u6bd4\u8f03\u5e73\u975c\u3002\u96d6\u7136\u4e2d\u4e16\u7d00\u53ea\u6709Thomas Aquinas\u4e00\u500b\u8457\u540d\u54f2\u5b78\u5bb6\ufe50\u4f46\u5728\u4fee\u9662\u5167\u6709\u5f88\u5927\u7684\u5b78\u8853\u81ea\u7531\u7a7a\u9593\u3002\u5728\u773e\u591a\u7121\u540d\u795e\u5b78\u54f2\u5b78\u5bb6\u7684\u8457\u4f5c\u4e2d\ufe50\u6211\u5011\u53ef\u4ee5\u627e\u5230\u5f8c\u4f86\u555f\u8499\u54f2\u5b78\u5de8\u982d\u7684\u60f3\u601d\u7e2e\u5f71\ufe50\u6216\u672a\u7d93\u96d5\u7422\u6574\u5408\u7684\u96f6\u788e\u601d\u8003\u7247\u65b7\u3002","rel":"","context":"In 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"\u5b97\u6559"","block_context":{"text":"\u5b97\u6559","link":"https:\/\/www.horace.org\/blog\/category\/_religions\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":992,"url":"https:\/\/www.horace.org\/blog\/2006\/12\/30\/phil220-social-and-political-philosophy-%e7%a4%be%e6%9c%83%e6%94%bf%e6%b2%bb%e5%93%b2%e5%ad%b8\/","url_meta":{"origin":1937,"position":5},"title":"PHIL220 Social and Political Philosophy \u793e\u6703\u653f\u6cbb\u54f2\u5b78","author":"hevangel","date":"December 30, 2006","format":false,"excerpt":"\u6211\u500b\u5b78\u671f\u8b80\u7684\u54f2\u5b78\u8ab2\u662f\u73fe\u4ee3\u653f\u6cbb\u5165\u9580\ufe50\u6700\u958b\u5fc3\u83ab\u904e\u65bc\u4eca\u6b21\u7684\u6210\u7e3e\u6709\u5f88\u5927\u9032\u6b65\u3002\u6211\u7b2c\u4e00\u7bc7\u5de7\u8ab2\u53ea\u6709C-\ufe50\u4f46\u8003\u8a66\u8207\u7b2c\u4e8c\u7bc7\u529f\u8ab2\u5f88\u7528\u529b\ufe50\u6700\u5f8c\u7e3d\u5206\u6709B\u3002\u96d6\u7136\u9060\u5deeA\u4e00\u6bb5\u8ddd\u96e2\ufe50\u4f46\u81f3\u5c11\u662f\u500b\u53ef\u4ee5\u898b\u4eba\u7684\u5206\u6578\ufe50\u8b49\u660e\u6211\u9084\u6709\u591a\u5c11\u8b80\u54f2\u5b78\u7684\u6599\u5b50\u3002\u4ee5\u524d\u8b80\u7684\u8a8d\u77e5\u8ad6\u548c\u5f62\u4e0a\u5b78\u7684\u54f2\u5b78\u8ab2\ufe50\u5167\u5bb9\u96d6\u7136\u6709\u8da3\u4f46\u59cb\u7d42\u8207\u73fe\u5be6\u62bd\u96e2\ufe50\u8a0e\u8ad6\u8b70\u984c\u4e5f\u53ea\u8c61\u7259\u5854\u5167\u7684\u98a8\u6ce2\u3002\u4eca\u6b21\u8b80\u653f\u6cbb\u54f2\u5b78\u5247\u8207\u65e5\u5e38\u751f\u6d3b\u6709\u5207\u8eab\u95dc\u4fc2\ufe50\u5c0d\u8ab2\u984c\u6709\u6295\u5165\u611f\u5f97\u591a\u3002\u5728\u8ab2\u5802\u4e2d\u5b78\u5230\u7684\u7406\u8ad6\ufe50\u8b93\u6211\u53ef\u4ee5\u66f4\u52a0\u6e05\u695a\u5730\u5206\u6790\u65b0\u805e\u6642\u4e8b\u7684\u8108\u7d61\ufe50\u770b\u7a7f\u653f\u6cbb\u8a55\u8ad6\u80cc\u5f8c\u90a3\u4e9b\u76f8\u7576\u7136\u77e3\u7684\u5047\u8a2d\u3002\u53e4\u5178\u653f\u6cbb\u653f\u5b78\u4e3b\u8981\u662f\u63a2\u8a0e\u6b0a\u529b\ufe50\u570b\u5bb6\ufe50\u4eba\u6c11\u548c\u653f\u5e9c\u7684\u95dc\u4fc2\ufe50\u73fe\u4ee3\u653f\u6cbb\u54f2\u5b78\u5247\u63a2\u8a0e\u653f\u6cbb\u5236\u5ea6\u8207\u516c\u7fa9\u7684\u95dc\u4fc2\u3002\u516c\u7fa9\u662f\u6240\u6709\u73fe\u4ee3\u653f\u6cbb\u7406\u5ff5\u7684\u5171\u540c\u76ee\u6a19\ufe50\u53ef\u662f\u4e0d\u540c\u653f\u6cbb\u7406\u8ad6\u5e95\u4e0b\ufe50\u5c0d\u516c\u7fa9\u7684\u5b9a\u7fa9\u4ee5\u53ca\u5982\u4f55\u9054\u5230\u516c\u7fa9\u7684\u770b\u6cd5\u4e5f\u4e0d\u540c\u3002\u9019\u9580\u8ab2\u63a1\u7528\u52a0\u62ff\u5927\u5b78\u8005Will 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