Ecological Ethics, An Introduction – Patrick Curry

近年潮流興環保,我一直對這個議題很有興趣。剛好大學開辨環境道德哲學的課,很可惜上課時間不適合,我沒有機會修讀。只好把課本買回來自已看,這本書是便是該課的課本。這是本環保理論的入門書藉,書中總括介紹由淺綠至深綠,各種不同的環境倫理的理論。全書只有短短一百五十頁,但內容十分豐富,要閱讀大量資料也不容易。由於只是入門的關係,書中盡量中肯地的介紹各個理論,至於對各個理論的批評和討論,這課還有另外一本巨形磚頭書。

這本書最初幾章先介紹道德理論的基礎,客觀道德觀與相對道德觀的不同,解釋道德上訴諸自然的謬誤,宗教道德觀和現代世俗道德觀的分別。接著簡介傳統三大道德理論,亞里士多德的德行論,康德的責任論和功用主對的後果論。傳統道德觀一直以來也是人本思想為中心價值,環境道德觀則主張人類不再是價值的中心,提倡以動物,所有生物,或整個地球的生態為價值的中心。道德中心價值取向的不同,必然會有要在人類和環境作出取捨的情況,這亦是環保議題中最具爭議的課題。書中舉出殺蟲藥作為例子,殺蟲藥會損害環境,但卻是滅蚊控制瘧疾的有效手段,在環境和人命之間,該如何選擇才合乎那種道德呢。

淺綠的環保理論是以人本道德為主,只有人類才有本然價值,其他動物和環境只有功用價傎。淺綠理論以資源管理為出發點,環保是人類可持續性發展必需要克服的難題。其中最有名的淺綠理論是救生船論(Lifeboat Ethic),地球就像一艘太空船,其維生系統有物理性的限制,人類不能無限制地使用資源。淺綠理論最為大眾接受,但反對者認為只考慮人類利益並不能真保護環境。

中綠環保理論仇舊是以人類為主心,但把本然價值擴大到包括動物或其他生物。其中最出名的有三個理論。Peter Singer以後果論為基礎的動物解放運動(Animal Liberation),把動物的快樂也納入計算功用內。Tom Regan以責任論為基礎的動物權利主義(Animal Rights),認為每一隻動物也有與人類同等的生存權。Paul Taylor的生物中心論(Biocentrism),把人類與其他動植生命置於相同的任置,人類對其他生命也有相同的道德責任。

深綠環保理論與淺綠和中綠的最大分別,是價值的取向從個體層面跳升到全部的層面,包括一切生物和死物。當環境和人類的利益相違時,容許否定人類利益的必然取向。書中介紹以下幾個主要的深綠理論:

土地倫理(Land Ethic)把土壤,水,動植物,統統給舉本然價值,把人類視為生態環境的一份子。它認為合乎道德的事情,必需能夠保存生態環境的一致性,隱定性和美麗,反之便是錯誤的事情。反對者認為土地倫理大大限制人類的自由,並妨礙人類使用天然資源的權利。

蓋亞理論(Gaia Theory)認為地球是一個超級生命體,人類是地球身上的害蟲,當地球受夠人類時,它便會作出反擊,讓生態回覆正常。反對者認為蓋亞理論沒有科學根據,事實上蓋亞便是希臘神話中大地之神的名字。另外蓋亞理論和土地倫理內容太過空泛,很容易被指為綠色法西斯主義,以地球為名義侵犯個人的自由和權利。

深環境論(Deep Ecology)認為非人類生物有本然價值,不應只要對人類的功用去衡量,人類沒有權利去減少物種的豐富性。因此人類必需要改變生活模式,並逐漸少人口數目,讓其他生物有生存的空間。深環境論還是一個新紀元運動,要從思想上去改變人類中心的思考,讓人們明白環境也是人的一部份,讓人的心靈連接到環境上。

深綠理論(Deep Green Theory)否定人類中心主義,認為人類並沒有特別的道德位置,大自然的本然價值,可以凌駕人類的利益。他們認為除了每個人自願性的轉變外,社會結構也要作出改變。

左翼生態中心主義(Left Biocentrism)同時否定資本主義和社會主義,認為兩者皆是工業主義的一體兩面。他們把馬克思的階級理論,推展到全部生物的層面,認為人類在剝削其他生物。他們認為地球並不屬於任何人,人類有責任過簡單的生活,以減少對環境的傷害。他們反對經濟發展和全球化,但認為馬克思理論還是人本思想,仍然會傷害環境。其他物種的利益,比任何個人,家庭,社區或國家的利益更加重要。簡單而言,儘管人們認為救謢車救人是好,坦克車殺人是壞。但在環境的角度,坦克車和救謢車是沒有分別,都會帶來環境破壞。

地球宣言(The Earth Manifesto)是個大雜燴,把前面提及的種種理論,寫下來成為行動宣言,還順手加入滅貧,民主,和平等宣言。地球宣言好聽是好聽,可是流於不切實際,特別是宣言中的理念有衝突時,宣言並沒有說明解決的方向。

環境女性主義(Ecofeminsim)和傳統女性主義的理論,應用在環境問題上,把男性對女性的不平等,申延至人類對自然的不平等上。女性主義反對理性爭辯,認為人應該用感情去感受大自然。不談責任或權利的問題,人類要像母親般把大自然好好的照顧。

有些深綠支持者,更把環保提升到宗教的層面,他們認為人類的主要宗教,皆無法滿足環保問題的訴求。他們想回到土著的精神生活,放棄人類現代文化的生活,重回原始人與大地共存的生活模式。

最後一章引用書中的環境理論,討論地球環境面對的最大難題,就是地球上的人口太多。根據科學家的計算,若果人類要有歐洲發展國家舒適的生活質素,就算把可以提高能源效率的新科技計算在內,地球只能夠支持大約二十億人口,可是現在地球人口超標三倍。綠色科技發展追不上人口增長,要人們大幅減少物質生活則不受歡迎,這個問題正是深綠環境理論的試金石,看看如何把環境放在人類的利益之上,限制人類無節制地生育。其實把地球視為支持人口的資源,去計算二十億人這個數目,便已經違反深綠的理念。若要把人類對環境的影嚮減到最少,人類必需更加大量地減少人口,才能夠讓人類和其他物種和平共存。

人形軟件(卷二) 生死之輪 – 譚劍

譚劍,香港僅存唯一的科幻小說作家,當了他的讀者這麼多年,上次回香港時剛好他的新小說出版,便跑去旺角二樓書店買。買了放在背包中,坐車時等人時翻看,還未離開香港便已看完。這次「人形軟件」卷二拖了很久才出版,譚劍看來真的把卷二作出重大改動,上次卷一書未的預告,明明說「在東京秋葉原某個格仔店裏,善兵待沽的機械人」,可是書中機械人卻到了仙台,希望卷三能夠如期出書吧。

第二卷的故事三線平衡發展,三條主線可說互不相干,沒有上一卷故事的精彩。天照變成純萃路人,她的戲份有點拖時間佔篇幅的感覺。原本人與軟件相戀可以是個好題材,但譚劍男人老狗不擅感情描寫,完全沒有感動位。主角小機械人逃亡是重頭戲,與追捕的人鬥智寫得不錯,火車站儲物櫃一役橋段高明。不過不知何解看這條線時,腦海中總是浮現「玩具奇兵」的畫面。新角色愛因斯坦人形軟件,主要用途是申述作者的世界觀,可是他的能力太過屈機,高高在上的發表偉論,給讀者有單方向說教的感覺。不過愛因斯坦的主角的備份,大慨同時也為下集解放主角的威能舖路。

與上卷的風格一樣,譚劍很愛拋書包,把很多不同科幻的元素寫進書內。可是他有點兒太貪心,很多科幻元素書中僅說了兩句,完全沒有把它融入故事之內,只給讀者留下花多眼亂的感覺。單單是魔音這一項,已足夠寫一本很有趣的科幻推理小說,現在只來幫脫險天照,有點兒浪費。愛因斯坦遇上人工智能小女孩,作者想從側面描寫愛因斯坦的善良,但後來人工智能卻不了了之。本來我還期待會帶出會帶出人類和人形軟件,人工智能生命體的新勢力,成為三強鼎立的大格局。愛因斯坦倒戈相向,消滅魔神教有點反高潮,原本以為應該是最終壞人,有摧毀世界能力的大組織,竟然如此不堪撼一擊,還要各地警方去拉人,與期望的差落實在太大。

竟然已經看了兩本,第三本結局篇必定也會捧場,不過「人形軟件」太流於於流行冒險小說的格局,未能進入真正科幻小說的殿堂。譚劍轉當全職作家才不久,我期待有天他能夠寫出本大格局的科幻小說。

Programming Linguistics – David Gelernter and Suresh Jagannathan

早前因工作上的需要,要設計一個新的程式語言,在網上找參考資料時,遇上了這本早已絕版的奇書。差不多每篇有關程式語言設計的論文,必定引用這本書。這引發我的好奇心,於是我大學的圖書館中,找來這本書借來一讀。不看猶自可看罷方知自已井蛙觀天,雖然自中學以來寫了程式超過二十多年,卻從來沒有思考過何謂程式這個最基本的問題。一直還以為自已寫程式功夫不錯,原來不過是學到幾個招式套拳的外功,這本書說的卻是寫程式的易筋經心法。讀過這本書,面對任何程式語言,也都可以一理通百理明。

一般教寫程式的書藉,通常從程式的文法和應用例子作教材,學生跟著練習題去學,慢慢便可以寫出像樣的程式,可是始終有點兒像鸚鵡學舌,沒錯能夠寫程式,但卻不明白程式是什麼。但這本書沒有教任何一種特定的程式語言,而是從語言學的角度,去分析歷史上重要的程式語言,到底新的文法帶來什麼的轉變,而同時亦指出不論什麼轉變,也都是萬變不離其中的基本觀念。

書本一開始便澄清什麼是程式,程式不是軟件或硬件的分別,甚至電腦本身是否存在也不重要,程式是一個抽像的機器,只是知訊的某一種狀態。程式語言只是代表程式的符號,任何程式語言在抽像的層面也是共通和等同的,只是不同語言設計的重點取向,有意無意左右了程式編寫員的思考模式。整本書的靈魂便是第二章中,提出的完美程式機器的模型。不論任何程式,也可以用時間(函數)和空間(記憶)去表達,而這兩者是可以互相轉換。靜止的程式源碼和運行中的程式,在抽像層面是同一樣東西,不過是時間和空間的關係改變了。

接下來的所有章節,都是回顧程式語言的發展,把每一個重要里程碑的語言,用完美程式機器去分析作比較。書中提及的程式語言,隨了做學術研究外,現今已沒有什麼人用。反觀現在最流行的幾種語言,本身並沒有獨創性可言,只是在走前人開發出來的路。這本書寫於一九九零年,超過二十年前。可是過去二十年,程式語言的發展卻停滯不前,只是不斷建立更多的程式庫,但最在基本的程式語言的思考方法上,與二十年前比較沒有多少突破。

始終這是一本大部頭的學術書,我很難在此以有限的文字,用三言兩語把書中慨念表達清楚。我特別想說的是,當我讀到完美程式機器的理論,我感到叮一聲開竅的感覺,多年來寫程式不明所以的地方,就在這一刻豁然領悟了。若果寫程式也有禪的話,這無異便是頓悟的境界。讀電腦的朋友,靠寫程式維生的朋友,這是一本會改變你想法的書。這書本學校不會教亦無法教,因為要寫程式多年,心中產生無數問號,才可以看懂程式的玄妙。

Do Romantic Thoughts Reduce Women’s Interest in Engineering?

If romance reduce girls’ pursuit in engineering, probably the reverse is also true that girls choose engineering have less interest in romance as well. They should do a follow up research and survey a large sample of engineering girls, see how many of them had a boyfriend in high school.

Now, someone should come up with a research showing male engineers are not romantic, so Pat cannot complain I am not romantic.

BY Steven Cherry, IEEE Spectrum, Fri, August 26, 2011
A new study suggests thoughts of romance can reduce college women’s interest in science and engineering

In the 1960s, when women first began enrolling at universities in record numbers, many people wondered: “Why weren’t more of them studying engineering?” Fifty years later, we’re still wondering. Only one in seven U.S. engineers is a woman. The so-called “engineering gender gap” is still a chasm.

And that’s not likely to change very quickly. The average college graduate nowadays is a woman—57 percent to 43—but when it comes to the so-called STEM fields, that’s science, technology, engineering, and math, women account for only 35 percent. And most of those are for life and physical sciences, not engineering or computer science.

It’s a problem perhaps best examined by psychologists, and examining it they are. And a new series of studies argues that—as clichéd as it sounds—maybe love really does have something to do with it.

An article based on the studies, will be published next month in the peer-reviewed journal, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.

My guest today is the paper’s lead author. Lora Park is an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Buffalo, in New York, and principal investigator at the Self and Motivation Lab there. She joins us by phone.A new study suggests thoughts of romance can reduce college women’s interest in science and engineering

Effects of Everyday Romantic Goal Pursuit on Women’s Attitudes Toward Math and Science

Abstract:
The present research examined the impact of everyday romantic goal strivings on women’s attitudes toward science, technology,engineering, and math (STEM). It was hypothesized that women may distance themselves from STEM when the goal to be romantically desirable is activated because pursuing intelligence goals in masculine domains (i.e., STEM) conflicts with pursuing romantic goals associated with traditional romantic scripts and gender norms. Consistent with hypotheses, women, but not men, who viewed images (Study 1) or overheard conversations (Studies 2a-2b) related to romantic goals reported less positive attitudes toward STEM and less preference for majoring in math/science compared to other disciplines. On days when women pursued romantic goals, the more romantic activities they engaged in and the more desirable they felt, but the fewer math activities they engaged in. Furthermore, women’s previous day romantic goal strivings predicted feeling more desirable but being less invested in math on the following day (Study 3).

Link to the paper: http://www.buffalo.edu/news/pdf/August11/ParkRomanticAttitudes.pdf

My first IPSC competition

I just completed my first IPSC competition today. I took the black badge course last year and it is required to complete one match to be fully certified. Unlike the elaborate match setup in the movies “double tap” or “triple tap”, a real IPSC match is more down to earth. We don’t have old school bus or custom built course with lots of props. All we have are empty barrels and mesh screens pretending to be real combat setting. We also have to help running the match by patching and setting up the target between each shooters. In today’s match, I worked in the morning and shot in the afternoon.

My instructor gave me some good advices, for the first match, try to finish last. It is better to finish the course last than being disqualified. The most common mistake is finger in the trigger while moving or changing magazine or the muzzle of the gun points more than 90 degrees when running to the side or running backward. Once your are disqualified, you are done for the day. Following all the procedures and do not violate any safety rules has the absolute priority.

The second advice is take your time and focus on accuracy first, don’t rush the course. On the stage that an average player takes 30 seconds to finish, while the best players take less than 20 seconds, it took me over 2 minutes to finish. I have fairly good accuracy and had completed a couple stages with most my hits in the A zone. However, at the last stage, I was very tried and start losing focus. I totally missed two targets and screwed up big time. That is partly due to I have to wake up at 5:30am in the morning to arrive at the shooting range on time at 7:30am, and partly due to the stress of shooting over 150 rounds in previous stages really worn me out.

People are friendly at the matches and I learn a lot just by watching how other people shoot. I also meet some interesting person in the match, an old lady play the match to company her husband, a mom using a baby stroller to carry her ammunition, a teenage boy shooting in the match with his dad and his time beats everyone in the group. The majority of the people are middle age men or old men, just like me. To my surprise, I see a lots of Chinese faces, probably a third of players speaks either Cantonese or Mandarin. Looks like shooting is a popular sports among the immigrants.

Playing IPSC is a very unique experience, totally unlike target practice. I felt the excitement and adrenaline rush, but at the same time I have to stay calm and stay cool. A match day is pretty slow, you are sitting there watching other people shoot most of the time. I stayed in the shooting range from 7:30am to 5pm, even longer than a normal work day, but the total game time is probably less than 15 minutes. However, this 15 minutes make the other 9 hours worth waiting for. It would be more fun if there are friends shooting the match together. I should starting promoting IPSC to my friends and lure them to join the game.